Science

Science is the intellectual study of the ​structure and behaviour of ​natural and physical ​world that applies the understanding and knowledge about the universe following a systematic methodology using observation and experimentation. The Science is advanced by research and curiosity about the world and a desire to solve problems.

Laws of Science (or Scientific Laws) is the general rule what always happen that describes or predicts a range of natural phenomena based on repeated experiments or observations. The Laws of Science is defined as a concise, verbal, mathematical, or statement that always remains the same under the same conditions. However, the Laws of Science have no explain why things happen that is answered by scientific theories, not scientific laws.

Laws of Thermodynamics describe the relationships between thermal energy, or heat, and other forms of energy, and how energy affects matter that defines fundamental physical quantities (temperature, energy, and entropy), and characterise thermodynamic systems at thermal equilibrium. There are four laws of thermodynamics are: Zeroth, First, Second and Third Law of Thermodynamics.

Newton’s Laws of Motion describes the relations between the forces acting on a body and the motion of the body, first formulated by English physicist and mathematician Isaac Newton, which were first stated by Isaac Newton in his Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy, first published in 1687. Newton’s first law: the law of inertia - an object at rest remains at rest, and an object in motion remains in motion at constant speed and in a straight line unless acted on by an unbalanced force; Newton’s second law: F = ma - the acceleration of an object depends on the mass of the object and the amount of force applied; Newton’s third law: the law of action and reaction - whenever one object exerts a force on another object, the second object exerts an equal and opposite on the first.

Avogadro's Law is an experimental gas law relating the volume of a gas to the amount of substance of gas present that states equal volumes of all gases contain the same number of molecules at the same pressure and temperature.

Arrhenius Equation is an equation describing the mathematical relationship between the reaction rate and the temperature of a reaction. Arrhenius Equation: k = Z e-E/RT where k is the specific reaction rate constant in reciprocal minutes for first order, Z is the pre-exponential factor in reciprocal minutes, E is the Arrhenius activation energy in J/mol, R is the gas constant, 8.32 J/mol K, and T is the temperature in kelvin.

Bernoulli Equation is the statement of conservation of energy, the sum of pressure, potential and kinetic energies per unit volume is constant at any point where, the fluid has constant density (a non-viscous and incompressible fluid), and the flow is steady with no friction.  (Refer to the Bernoulli's Principle)

Boolean Algebra is the branch of algebra in which the values of the variables are binary numbers that can have only two values: true (or 1) and false (or 0). Since computers are based on binary system and electronic devices in the restriction of the variable are two possible condition: On and Off. Boolean Operation is carried out with algebraic operators, the most basic of which are NOT (Negative), AND (Logical conjunction), and OR (Logical disjunction).

Boyle's Law is an ideal gas law, the volume of a gas is inversely proportional to its absolute pressure at constant temperature.

Charles's Law is an ideal gas law that states when the pressure on a sample of a dry gas is held constant, the temperature and the volume will be in direct proportion.

Combined Gas Law is a formula about ideal gases that states the ratio of the product of pressure and volume, divided by the absolute temperature, is a constant value. (e.g., Charles's Law, Boyle's Law, Gay-Lussac's Law)

Conservation of Mass is the law of conservation of mass or principle of mass conservation that states the matter can change forms but not be created or destroyed in a closed system.

Coulomb's Law is the force between two charged bodies is proportional to the quantity of both charges.

Dalton's Law is a total pressure of a gaseous mixture equals the sum of a partial pressure of the component gases in a mixture of non-reacting gases.

Faraday’s Law of Induction describes how an electric current produces a magnetic field and, conversely, how a changing magnetic field generates an electric current in a conductor. The Faraday's Law is any change in the magnetic environment of a coil of wire will cause a voltage (emf) to be induced in the coil that could be produced by changing the magnetic field strength, moving a magnet toward or away from the coil, moving the coil into or out of the magnetic field, rotating the coil relative to the magnet, etc.

Fourier's Law is the time rate of heat transfer through a material is proportional to the negative gradient in the temperature and to the area. Fourier's Law provides the definition of thermal conductivity and forms the basis of many methods of determining its value.

Gay-Lussac's law is a state of the ideal gas law by which the pressure of an ideal gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature at the constant volume.

Graham's Law is the rate of effusion of a gas that is inversely proportional to the square root of its molecular mass or density.

Gravitational Force refers to the Gravity. Newton's law of gravity states that the Gravitational Force between two bodies is proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.

Henry's Law is a law that states the mass of a dissolved gas in a given volume of solvent at equilibrium is proportional to the partial pressure of the gas above the solution.

Hess's Law is a law of the enthalpy change that states the energy change in an overall reaction equals the sum of the energy changes in its individual (partial) reactions.

Ideal Gas Law is the equation of state of a hypothetical ideal gas: PV = nRT where P is pressure, V is volume, n is number of moles, R is the ideal gas constant, and T is temperature.

Joule Thomson Effect is the change in temperature that accompanies expansion of a gas without production of work or transfer of heat that often causes a temperature decrease as gas flows through pores of a reservoir to the wellbore. The phenomenon was investigated in 1852 by the British physicists James Prescott Joule and William Thomson (Lord Kelvin).

Joule's Law is the rate of heat production by a steady current in any part of an electrical circuit that is proportional to the resistance (R) and to the square of the current (I^2), or the internal energy of an ideal gas depends only on its temperature. The electric power loss (P) = R * I^2 * t

Kalman Filter is one of the most important and common estimation algorithms that is an iterative technique of dynamic linear modelling, used mainly for estimating the parameters. The Kalman Filter produces estimates of hidden variables based on inaccurate and uncertain measurements, also provides a prediction of the future system state based on past estimations. The filter is named after Rudolf E. Kálmán (May 19, 1930 – July 2, 2016).

Laplace Equation is a partial differential equation applying to potential distribution for any system that has unique solution for given boundary conditions. The differential equation is named for French mathematician Pierre-Simon de Laplace (1749 to 1827), and applies to electrical, gravity and magnetic fields.

Laws of Thermodynamics describe the relationships between thermal energy, or heat, and other forms of energy, and how energy affects matter that defines fundamental physical quantities (temperature, energy, and entropy), and characterise thermodynamic systems at thermal equilibrium. There are four laws of thermodynamics are: Zeroth, First, Second and Third Law of Thermodynamics.

First Law of Thermodynamics (also, called as the Law of Conservation of Energy) states that the energy cannot be created or destroyed; the total quantity of energy in the universe stays the same. The System's internal energy changes in accordance with the First Law of Thermodynamics that passes energy as work, as heat, or with matter, into or out from a system. (Refer to the Laws of Thermodynamics)

Second Law of Thermodynamics states that the total entropy of an isolated system always increases over time this means that as energy is transferred or transformed, more and more of it is wasted, and there is a natural tendency of any isolated system to degenerate into a more disordered state. The increase in entropy accounts for the irreversibility of natural processes, and the asymmetry between future and past. (Refer to the Laws of Thermodynamics)

Third Law of Thermodynamics is concerned with the limiting behaviour, approaches a constant value of systems as the temperature approaches absolute zero. The Entropy of a perfect crystal is zero when the temperature of the crystal is equal to absolute zero (0 °K), with the exception of non-crystalline solids (glasses) the entropy of a system at absolute zero is typically close to zero, and is equal to the logarithm of the product of the quantum ground states. (Refer to the Laws of Thermodynamics)

Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics states that if two bodies are each in thermal equilibrium with some third body, then they are also in equilibrium with each other. Thermal equilibrium means that when two bodies are brought into contact with each other and separated by a barrier that is permeable to heat, there will be no transfer of heat from one to the other.

Maxwell’s Equations describe how electric charges and electric currents create electric and magnetic fields, and how an electric field can generate a magnetic field. Maxwell’s Equations, which express experimental laws and state four equations: 1) electric field diverges from electric charge - the Coulomb force; 2) there are no isolated magnetic poles, but the Coulomb force acts between the poles of a magnet; 3) electric fields are produced by changing magnetic fields- the Faraday’s law of induction; 4) circulating magnetic fields are produced by changing electric fields and by electric currents.

Nernst Equation is an equation that expresses the exact electromotive force of an electrochemical cell in terms of the activities of products and reactants of the cell. The Nernst Equation relates the reduction potential of an electrochemical reaction to the standard electrode potential, temperature, and activities of the chemical species undergoing reduction and oxidation.

Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation states that the force of gravitational attraction is directly dependent upon the masses of both objects and inversely proportional to the square of the distance that separates their centres. The magnitude of the attractive force F is equal to G (the gravitational constant, a number the size of which depends on the system of units used and which is a universal constant) multiplied by the product of the masses (m1 and m2) and divided by the square of the distance R: F = G * (m1 * m2)/R^2

Ohm's Law is a law stating that electric current is proportional to voltage and inversely proportional to resistance: the voltage between two points (volts) divided by the current (Amperes) is a constant known as resistance (Ohm).

Poisson's Equation is a partial differential equation from Coulomb's law and Gauss's law, that is a second-order partial differential equation used for solving problems, such as finding the electric potential for a given charge distribution, or modelling gravitational fields.

Raoult's Law states the partial vapor pressure of each component of an ideal mixture of liquids is equal to the vapor pressure of the pure component multiplied by its mole fraction in the mixture.

Second Law Efficiency (Exergy Efficiency or Rational Efficiency) is the ratio of the minimum amount of work or energy required to perform a task to the amount actually used. Second Law Efficiencies measure how successfully entropy generation has been minimised in a device by comparing real processes to an equivalent idealised isentropic process via their thermal efficiencies.

Snell's Law is a formula used to describe the relationship between the angles of incidence and refraction that is the physical change in the direction of a wavefront as it travels from one medium to another.

Square Cube Law is 1) a scientific mathematical principle which describes the relationship between the volume and the surface area as an objective size increase or decrease, and the ratio between the areas and the volume is changing with size the properties of the object are changing with size; 2) the power available in the wind that is proportional to the cube of the wind velocity (when wind speed doubles, the power availability increases eight times).

Tafel Equation is an equation in electrochemical kinetics relating the rate of an electrochemical reaction that governs the irreversible behaviour of an electrode.

Van der Waals Force is weak, short-range electrostatic attractive forces between uncharged molecules, arising from the interaction of permanent or transient electric dipole moments that attracts neutral molecules to one another in gases, in liquefied and solidified gases, and in almost all organic liquids and solids. These forces differ from chemical bonding because they result from fluctuations in charge density of particles.

Zoeppritz Equation is the seismic wave energy partitioning at the interfaces that describes the partitioning of energy in a wavefield relative to its angle of incidence at a boundary across which the properties of the rock and fluid content changes.

Agroecology is the study of the agricultural production systems and environments.

Anthropology is the study of human societies and cultures and their development within past and present societies.

Biochemistry (or Biological Chemistry) is the study of the chemical processes and compounds occurring in living organisms.

Biology is a natural science concerned with the study of life and living organisms, including their structure, function, growth, evolution, distribution, and taxonomy.

Chemistry is a scientific study of the basic chemical composition, structure, property, reaction of substances.

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) is the complex chemical constituted the molecules inside cells that carries genetic information and passes it from one generation to the next. DNA is contained in chromosomes, which are found in the nucleus of most cells. The gene is the unit of inheritance and different forms of the same gene are called alleles. The Human Genome Project has worked out the human DNA sequence, and its data are useful for forensic science and medical research.

Ecology is the scientific analysis and study of interactions among organisms and their environment.

Economics

Accelerating Rate Calorimetry (ARC) is a technique that measures thermal and pressure properties of exothermic chemical reactions. An ARC is heating the substance in stages until very slow decomposition that helps industry operate safely and profitably. This method is primarily employed in industries and research fields where understanding the thermal behaviour of materials and reactions is crucial for safety and process optimization, such as the chemical, pharmaceutical, and energy sectors.

Black Hole is an area of space with a gravitational field so strong that nothing, no particles or even electromagnetic radiation such as light, can escape it. The crushing weight of constituent matter falling in from all sides compresses to a point of zero volume and infinite density called the singularity.

Goldilocks is 1) used to describe a situation in which something is or has to be exactly right; 2) In science, Goldilocks principle is used to describe the notion of an ideal or optimal range for certain conditions; 3) In economics, the Goldilocks economy sustains moderate economic growth and low inflation, which allows a market-friendly monetary policy. The Goldilocks economy describes an ideal state for an economy whereby the economy is not expanding or contracting by too much that has steady economic growth, preventing a recession, but not so much growth that inflation rises by too much.

Latitude (lat) is a geographic coordinate, the position (angular distance) of north or south from the equator describing in degree (North or South 0 ~ 90).

Longitude (long) is a geographic coordinate that is the distance east or west from the Greenwich Meridian, describing in degree (+/- 0 ~ 180).

Lewis Base is any chemical species that has a filled orbital containing an electron pair which is not involved in bonding (electron pair donor).

Lewis Symbol and Structure (also known as Lewis Dot Diagrams or Electron Dot Diagrams) is diagrams used dots that represent the bonding between atoms of a molecule and the lone pairs of electrons. The Lewis Symbols and structures help visualise the valence electrons of atoms and molecules.

Lewis Theory

National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI) began as the National Center for Human Genome Research (NCHGR), which was established in 1989 to carry out the role of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) in the International Human Genome Project (HGP). In 1997 the United States Department of Health and Human Services renamed NCHGR the National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI), officially elevating it to the status of research institute - one of 27 institutes and centers that make up the NIH. With the human genome sequence complete since April 2003, scientists around the world have access to a database that greatly facilitates and accelerates the pace of biomedical research. (Source: www.genome.gov/)